---

title: 'Scalar Functions' sidebar_label: 'Scalar Functions' pagination_prev: 'reference/sql/ai' sidebar_position: 6

:::info Spice is built on Apache DataFusion and uses the PostgreSQL dialect, even when querying datasources with different SQL dialects. Note, when using a data accelerator like DuckDB, function support is specific to each acceleration engine, and not all functions are supported by all acceleration engines. :::

Scalar functions help transform, compute, and manipulate data at the row level. These functions are evaluated for each row in a query result and return a single value per invocation. Spice.ai supports a broad set of scalar functions, including math, string, conditional, date/time, array, struct, map, regular expression, and hashing functions. The function set closely follows the PostgreSQL dialect.

Function Categories

• Math Functions
• Conditional Functions
• String Functions
• Binary String Functions
• Regular Expression Functions
• Time and Date Functions
• Array Functions
• Struct Functions
• Map Functions
• Hashing Functions
• Union Functions
• Other Functions

---

Math Functions

Math functions in Spice.ai SQL help perform numeric calculations, transformations, and analysis. These functions operate on numeric expressions, which can be constants, columns, or results of other functions and operators. The following math functions are supported:

abs

Returns the absolute value of a numeric expression. If the input is negative, the result is its positive equivalent; if the input is positive or zero, the result is unchanged.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value to evaluate. Accepts constants, columns, or expressions.

Example

acos

Returns the arc cosine (inverse cosine) of a numeric expression. The input must be in the range [-1, 1]. The result is in radians.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value between -1 and 1.

acosh

Returns the inverse hyperbolic cosine of a numeric expression. The input must be greater than or equal to 1.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value greater than or equal to 1.

asin

Returns the arc sine (inverse sine) of a numeric expression. The input must be in the range [-1, 1]. The result is in radians.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value between -1 and 1.

asinh

Returns the inverse hyperbolic sine of a numeric expression.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

atan

Returns the arc tangent (inverse tangent) of a numeric expression. The result is in radians.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

atan2

Returns the arc tangent of the quotient of its arguments, that is, atan(expression_y / expression_x). The result is in radians and takes into account the signs of both arguments to determine the correct quadrant.

Arguments

• expression_y: Numerator value.
• expression_x: Denominator value.

atanh

Returns the inverse hyperbolic tangent of a numeric expression. The input must be in the range (-1, 1).

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value between -1 and 1 (exclusive).

cbrt

Returns the cube root of a numeric expression.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

ceil

Returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to the input value.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

cos

Returns the cosine of a numeric expression, where the input is in radians.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value in radians.

cosh

Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a numeric expression.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

cot

Returns the cotangent of a numeric expression, where the input is in radians.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value in radians.

degrees

Converts radians to degrees.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value in radians.

exp

Returns the value of e (Euler's number) raised to the power of the input value.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Exponent value.

factorial

Returns the factorial of a non-negative integer. For values less than 2, returns 1.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Non-negative integer value.

floor

Returns the largest integer less than or equal to the input value.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

gcd

Returns the greatest common divisor of two integer expressions. If both inputs are zero, returns 0.

Arguments

• expression_x: First integer value.
• expression_y: Second integer value.

isnan

Returns true if the input is NaN (not a number), otherwise returns false.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

iszero

Returns true if the input is +0.0 or -0.0, otherwise returns false.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

lcm

Returns the least common multiple of two integer expressions. If either input is zero, returns 0.

Arguments

• expression_x: First integer value.
• expression_y: Second integer value.

mod

Returns the remainder after dividing the first argument by the second, matching the Spark SQL %/mod semantics for signed values.

Arguments

• dividend: Numeric expression to divide.
• divisor: Numeric expression that cannot be zero.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL mod.

pmod

Returns a positive remainder for integer or floating-point division. When the standard remainder is negative, the divisor is added to produce a non-negative result, mirroring Spark SQL behavior.

Arguments

• dividend: Numeric expression to divide.
• divisor: Numeric expression that cannot be zero.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL pmod.

ln

Returns the natural logarithm (base e) of a numeric expression.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Positive numeric value.

log

Returns the logarithm of a numeric expression. If a base is provided, returns the logarithm to that base; otherwise, returns the base-10 logarithm.

Arguments

• base: Base of the logarithm (optional).
• numeric_expression: Positive numeric value.

log10

Returns the base-10 logarithm of a numeric expression.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Positive numeric value.

log2

Returns the base-2 logarithm of a numeric expression.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Positive numeric value.

nanvl

Returns the first argument if it is not NaN; otherwise, returns the second argument.

Arguments

• expression_x: Value to return if not NaN.
• expression_y: Value to return if the first argument is NaN.

pi

Returns an approximate value of π (pi).

pow and power

Returns the value of the first argument raised to the power of the second argument. pow is an alias for power.

Arguments

• base: Numeric value to raise.
• exponent: Power to raise the base to.

radians

Converts degrees to radians.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value in degrees.

random

Returns a random floating-point value in the range [0, 1). The random seed is unique for each row.

round

Rounds a numeric expression to the nearest integer or to a specified number of decimal places.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value to round.
• decimal_places: Optional. Number of decimal places to round to. Defaults to 0.

rint

Rounds a double-precision value to the nearest integer using IEEE-754 "round to nearest, ties to even" rules and returns the rounded value as a floating-point number, matching Spark SQL semantics.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Floating-point expression to round. Integers are implicitly cast to double.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL rint.

signum

Returns the sign of a numeric expression. Returns -1 for negative numbers, 1 for zero and positive numbers.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

sin

Returns the sine of a numeric expression, where the input is in radians.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value in radians.

sinh

Returns the hyperbolic sine of a numeric expression.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

sqrt

Returns the square root of a numeric expression.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Non-negative numeric value.

tan

Returns the tangent of a numeric expression, where the input is in radians.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value in radians.

tanh

Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a numeric expression.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Numeric value.

trunc

Truncates a numeric expression to a whole number or to a specified number of decimal places. If decimal_places is positive, truncates digits to the right of the decimal point; if negative, truncates digits to the left.

Arguments

• numeric_expression: Value to truncate.
• decimal_places: Optional. Number of decimal places to truncate to. Defaults to 0.

width_bucket

Assigns a value to an equiwidth histogram bucket. Returns 0 when the value is below min_value, num_bucket + 1 when it is above max_value, and otherwise the 1-based bucket index, mirroring Spark SQL behavior.

Arguments

• value: Numeric or interval expression to bin.
• min_value: Lower bound of the histogram range.
• max_value: Upper bound of the histogram range.
• num_bucket: Positive integer specifying the number of buckets.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL width_bucket.

---

Conditional Functions

Conditional functions help handle null values, select among alternatives, and compare multiple expressions. Functions such as coalesce, greatest, least, and nullif are supported. These are useful for data cleaning and conditional logic in queries.

if

Evaluates a boolean condition and returns one of two expressions, matching the Spark SQL if function semantics.

Arguments

• condition: Boolean expression determining which branch to take.
• true_value: Expression to return when the condition evaluates to true.
• false_value: Expression to return when the condition evaluates to false or NULL.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL if.

String Functions

String functions in Spice.ai SQL help manipulate, analyze, and transform text data. These functions operate on string expressions, which can be constants, columns, or results of other functions. The implementation closely follows the PostgreSQL dialect. The following string functions are supported:

ascii

Returns the Unicode code point of the first character in a string. If the string is empty, returns 0.

Arguments

• str: String expression. Accepts constants, columns, or expressions.

Example

Related function: chr

bit_length

Returns the number of bits in the string. Each character is counted according to its byte representation (8 bits per byte).

Arguments

• str: String expression.

Example

Related functions: length, octet_length

btrim

Removes the longest string containing only characters in trim_str from the start and end of str. If trim_str is omitted, whitespace is removed.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• trim_str: Optional string of characters to trim. Defaults to whitespace.

Example

Alternative syntax: trim(BOTH trim_str FROM str) or trim(trim_str FROM str)

Aliases: trim

Related functions: ltrim, rtrim

char_length

Alias of character_length.

character_length

Returns the number of characters in a string, not bytes. Handles Unicode correctly.

Arguments

• str: String expression.

Example

Aliases: length, char_length

Related functions: bit_length, octet_length

chr

Returns the character with the specified Unicode code point.

Arguments

• expression: Integer code point.

Example

Related function: ascii

concat

Concatenates two or more strings into a single string.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• str_n: Additional string expressions.

Example

Related function: concat_ws

concat_ws

Concatenates strings using a separator between each value.

Arguments

• separator: String separator.
• str: String expression.
• str_n: Additional string expressions.

Example

Related function: concat

contains

Returns true if search_str is found within str. The search is case-sensitive.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• search_str: Substring to search for.

Example

like

Performs SQL pattern matching using % to match zero or more characters and _ to match a single character. The optional SQL ESCAPE clause can be used to treat a wildcard literally, matching Spark SQL behavior.

Arguments

• str: String expression to compare.
• pattern: Pattern containing literal text plus % and _ wildcards.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL like.

ilike

Case-insensitive variant of like that treats ASCII characters in str and pattern without regard to case. The optional SQL ESCAPE clause may be used to treat % or _ literally.

Arguments

• str: String expression to compare.
• pattern: Case-insensitive pattern containing literal text plus % and _ wildcards.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL ilike.

ends_with

Returns true if str ends with the substring substr.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• substr: Substring to test for.

Example

find_in_set

Returns the position (1-based) of str in the comma-separated list strlist. Returns 0 if not found.

Arguments

• str: String to find.
• strlist: Comma-separated list of substrings.

Example

initcap

Capitalizes the first character of each word in the string. Words are delimited by non-alphanumeric characters.

Arguments

• str: String expression.

Example

Related functions: lower, upper

instr

Alias of strpos.

left

Returns the first n characters from the left side of the string.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• n: Number of characters to return.

Example

Related function: right

length

Alias of character_length.

levenshtein

Returns the Levenshtein distance between two strings.

Arguments

• str1: First string.
• str2: Second string.

Example

lower

Converts all characters in the string to lower case.

Arguments

• str: String expression.

Example

Related functions: initcap, upper

luhn_check

Validates that a string of digits satisfies the Luhn checksum, returning true for valid numbers and false otherwise. This matches the Spark SQL implementation and is useful for validating identifiers such as credit card numbers.

Arguments

• str: String expression containing digits.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL luhn_check.

lpad

Pads the left side of the string with another string until the result reaches the specified length. If the padding string is omitted, a space is used.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• n: Target length.
• padding_str: Optional string to pad with.

Example

Related function: rpad

ltrim

Removes the longest string containing only characters in trim_str from the start of str. If trim_str is omitted, whitespace is removed.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• trim_str: Optional string of characters to trim. Defaults to whitespace.

Example

Alternative syntax: trim(LEADING trim_str FROM str)

Related functions: btrim, rtrim

octet_length

Returns the number of bytes in the string.

Arguments

• str: String expression.

Example

Related functions: bit_length, length

overlay

Replaces a substring of str with substr, starting at position pos for count characters. If count is omitted, uses the length of substr.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• substr: Replacement string.
• pos: Start position (1-based).
• count: Optional number of characters to replace.

Example

parse_url

Extracts a component from a URL, or retrieves an individual query parameter when provided a key, following Spark SQL semantics. Supported parts include HOST, PATH, QUERY, REF, PROTOCOL, FILE, and AUTHORITY.

Arguments

• url: URL string expression.
• part_to_extract: Case-insensitive token identifying which component to extract.
• key: Optional query parameter key to extract from the QUERY part.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL parse_url.

position

Alias of strpos.

repeat

Returns a string consisting of the input string repeated n times.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• n: Number of repetitions.

Example

replace

Replaces all occurrences of substr in str with replacement.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• substr: Substring to replace.
• replacement: Replacement string.

Example

reverse

Returns the string with the character order reversed.

Arguments

• str: String expression.

Example

right

Returns the last n characters from the right side of the string.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• n: Number of characters to return.

Example

Related function: left

rpad

Pads the right side of the string with another string until the result reaches the specified length. If the padding string is omitted, a space is used.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• n: Target length.
• padding_str: Optional string to pad with.

Example

Related function: lpad

rtrim

Removes the longest string containing only characters in trim_str from the end of str. If trim_str is omitted, whitespace is removed.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• trim_str: Optional string of characters to trim. Defaults to whitespace.

Example

Alternative syntax: trim(TRAILING trim_str FROM str)

Related functions: btrim, ltrim

split_part

Splits the string on the specified delimiter and returns the substring at the given position (1-based).

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• delimiter: Delimiter string.
• pos: Position of the part to return (1-based).

Example

starts_with

Returns true if str starts with the substring substr.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• substr: Substring to test for.

Example

strpos

Returns the position (1-based) of the first occurrence of substr in str. Returns 0 if not found.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• substr: Substring to search for.

Example

Alternative syntax: position(substr in origstr)

Aliases: instr, position

substr

Extracts a substring from str, starting at start_pos for length characters. If length is omitted, returns the rest of the string.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• start_pos: Start position (1-based).
• length: Optional number of characters to extract.

Example

Alternative syntax: substring(str from start_pos for length)

Aliases: substring

substr_index

Returns the substring from str before or after a specified number of occurrences of the delimiter delim. If count is positive, returns everything to the left of the final delimiter (counting from the left). If count is negative, returns everything to the right of the final delimiter (counting from the right).

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• delim: Delimiter string.
• count: Number of occurrences (positive or negative).

Example

Aliases: substring_index

substring

Alias of substr.

substring_index

Alias of substr_index.

to_hex

Converts an integer to its hexadecimal string representation.

Arguments

• int: Integer expression.

Example

translate

Replaces each character in str that matches a character in chars with the corresponding character in translation. If translation is shorter than chars, extra characters are removed.

Arguments

• str: String expression.
• chars: Characters to translate.
• translation: Replacement characters.

Example

trim

Alias of btrim.

upper

Converts all characters in the string to upper case.

Arguments

• str: String expression.

Example

Related functions: initcap, lower

uuid

Returns a UUID v4 string value that is unique per row.

Example

---

Binary String Functions

Binary string functions help encode and decode binary data, such as base64 and hexadecimal conversions. These are useful for working with encoded data or binary blobs.

bit_get

Returns the bit (0 or 1) at the specified zero-based position when counting from the least-significant bit of an integral or binary expression, matching Spark SQL semantics.

Arguments

• value: Integer or binary expression whose bits are inspected.
• position: Zero-based index of the bit to return. Must be non-negative.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL bit_get.

bit_count

Counts the number of set bits in an integral or binary expression. Useful for quick popcount operations on bitmaps or packed flags, aligned with Spark SQL behavior.

Arguments

• value: Integer or binary expression.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL bit_count.

bitmap_count

Returns the number of set bits in a binary bitmap produced by functions such as bitmap_construct_agg, mirroring the Spark SQL implementation.

Arguments

• bitmap: Binary expression representing a bitmap.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL bitmap_count.

Regular Expression Functions

Regular expression functions help match, extract, and replace patterns in strings. Spice.ai uses a PCRE-like regular expression syntax. Spice supports the following regular expressions:

• regexp_like
• regexp_match
• regexp_replace
• regexp_count
• regexp_instr

regexp_like

Returns true if a regular expression has at least one match in a string, false otherwise.

Arguments

• str: String expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• regexp: Regular expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• flags: Optional regular expression flags that control the behavior of the regular expression. The following flags are supported:
  • i: case-insensitive: letters match both upper and lower case
  • m: multi-line mode: ^ and $ match begin/end of line
  • s: allow . to match \n
  • R: enables CRLF mode: when multi-line mode is enabled, \r\n is used
  • U: swap the meaning of x* and x*?

Example

regexp_match

Returns the first regular expression matches in a string.

Arguments

• str: String expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• regexp: Regular expression to match against. Can be a constant, column, or function.
• flags: Optional regular expression flags that control the behavior of the regular expression. The following flags are supported:
  • i: case-insensitive: letters match both upper and lower case
  • m: multi-line mode: ^ and $ match begin/end of line
  • s: allow . to match \n
  • R: enables CRLF mode: when multi-line mode is enabled, \r\n is used
  • U: swap the meaning of x* and x*?

Example

regexp_replace

Replaces substrings in a string that match a regular expression.

Arguments

• str: String expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• regexp: Regular expression to match against. Can be a constant, column, or function.
• replacement: Replacement string expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• flags: Optional regular expression flags that control the behavior of the regular expression. The following flags are supported:
  • g: (global) Search globally and don’t return after the first match
  • i: case-insensitive: letters match both upper and lower case
  • m: multi-line mode: ^ and $ match begin/end of line
  • s: allow . to match \n
  • R: enables CRLF mode: when multi-line mode is enabled, \r\n is used
  • U: swap the meaning of x* and x*?

Example

regexp_count

Returns the number of matches that a regular expression has in a string.

Arguments

• str: String expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• regexp: Regular expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• start: - start: Optional start position (the first position is 1) to search for the regular expression. Can be a constant, column, or function.
• flags: Optional regular expression flags that control the behavior of the regular expression. The following flags are supported:
  • i: case-insensitive: letters match both upper and lower case
  • m: multi-line mode: ^ and $ match begin/end of line
  • s: allow . to match \n
  • R: enables CRLF mode: when multi-line mode is enabled, \r\n is used
  • U: swap the meaning of x* and x*?

Example

regexp_instr

Returns the position in a string where the specified occurrence of a POSIX regular expression is located.

Arguments

• str: String expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• regexp: Regular expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• start: - start: Optional start position (the first position is 1) to search for the regular expression. Can be a constant, column, or function. Defaults to 1
• N: - N: Optional The N-th occurrence of pattern to find. Defaults to 1 (first match). Can be a constant, column, or function.
• flags: Optional regular expression flags that control the behavior of the regular expression. The following flags are supported:
  • i: case-insensitive: letters match both upper and lower case
  • m: multi-line mode: ^ and $ match begin/end of line
  • s: allow . to match \n
  • R: enables CRLF mode: when multi-line mode is enabled, \r\n is used
  • U: swap the meaning of x* and x*?
• subexpr: Optional Specifies which capture group (subexpression) to return the position for. Defaults to 0, which returns the position of the entire match.

Example

Time and Date Functions

Time and date functions help extract, format, and manipulate temporal data. Functions include current_date, now, date_part, date_trunc, and various conversion functions. These are essential for time series analysis and working with timestamps.

• current_date
• current_time
• current_timestamp
• date_bin
• date_format
• date_part
• date_trunc
• datepart
• datetrunc
• from_unixtime
• make_date
• now
• to_char
• to_date
• to_local_time
• to_timestamp
• to_timestamp_micros
• to_timestamp_millis
• to_timestamp_nanos
• to_timestamp_seconds
• to_unixtime
• today

current_date

Returns the current UTC date.

The current_date() return value is determined at query time and will return the same date, no matter when in the query plan the function executes.

Aliases

• today

current_time

Returns the current UTC time.

The current_time() return value is determined at query time and will return the same time, no matter when in the query plan the function executes.

current_timestamp

Alias of now.

date_bin

Calculates time intervals and returns the start of the interval nearest to the specified timestamp. Use date_bin to downsample time series data by grouping rows into time-based "bins" or "windows" and applying an aggregate or selector function to each window.

For example, if you "bin" or "window" data into 15 minute intervals, an input timestamp of 2023-01-01T18:18:18Z will be updated to the start time of the 15 minute bin it is in: 2023-01-01T18:15:00Z.

Arguments

• interval: Bin interval.
• expression: Time expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function.
• origin-timestamp: Optional. Starting point used to determine bin boundaries. If not specified defaults 1970-01-01T00:00:00Z (the UNIX epoch in UTC). The following intervals are supported:
  • nanoseconds
  • microseconds
  • milliseconds
  • seconds
  • minutes
  • hours
  • days
  • weeks
  • months
  • years
  • century

Example

date_add

Adds a number of days to a DATE or TIMESTAMP expression, matching Spark SQL semantics. Negative offsets move backwards in time.

Arguments

• start_date: DATE or TIMESTAMP expression.
• num_days: Integer number of days to add.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL date_add.

date_sub

Subtracts a number of days from a DATE or TIMESTAMP expression using Spark-compatible behavior.

Arguments

• start_date: DATE or TIMESTAMP expression.
• num_days: Integer number of days to subtract.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL date_sub.

last_day

Returns the last day of the month that contains the input date or timestamp, matching Spark SQL semantics.

Arguments

• expression: DATE or TIMESTAMP expression.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL last_day.

next_day

Returns the first date after start_date that matches the requested day of week. Valid day names include full names (e.g., Monday) or abbreviations such as Mon, matching Spark SQL behavior.

Arguments

• start_date: DATE or TIMESTAMP expression.
• day_of_week: String literal naming the target weekday.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL next_day.

date_format

Alias of to_char.

date_part

Returns the specified part of the date as an integer.

Arguments

• part: Part of the date to return. The following date parts are supported:

  • year
  • quarter (emits value in inclusive range [1, 4] based on which quartile of the year the date is in)
  • month
  • week (week of the year)
  • day (day of the month)
  • hour
  • minute
  • second
  • millisecond
  • microsecond
  • nanosecond
  • dow (day of the week where Sunday is 0)
  • doy (day of the year)
  • epoch (seconds since Unix epoch)
  • isodow (day of the week where Monday is 0)

• expression: Time expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function.

Alternative Syntax

Aliases

• datepart

date_trunc

Truncates a timestamp value to a specified precision.

Arguments

• precision: Time precision to truncate to. The following precisions are supported:

  • year / YEAR
  • quarter / QUARTER
  • month / MONTH
  • week / WEEK
  • day / DAY
  • hour / HOUR
  • minute / MINUTE
  • second / SECOND
  • millisecond / MILLISECOND
  • microsecond / MICROSECOND

• expression: Time expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function.

Aliases

• datetrunc

datepart

Alias of date_part.

datetrunc

Alias of date_trunc.

from_unixtime

Converts an integer to RFC3339 timestamp format (YYYY-MM-DDT00:00:00.000000000Z). Integers and unsigned integers are interpreted as seconds since the unix epoch (1970-01-01T00:00:00Z) return the corresponding timestamp.

Arguments

• expression: The expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• timezone: Optional timezone to use when converting the integer to a timestamp. If not provided, the default timezone is UTC.

Example

make_date

Make a date from year/month/day component parts.

Arguments

• year: Year to use when making the date. Can be a constant, column or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.
• month: Month to use when making the date. Can be a constant, column or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.
• day: Day to use when making the date. Can be a constant, column or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.

Example

now

Returns the current UTC timestamp.

The now() return value is determined at query time and will return the same timestamp, no matter when in the query plan the function executes.

Aliases

• current_timestamp

to_char

Returns a string representation of a date, time, timestamp or duration based on a Chrono format. Unlike the PostgreSQL equivalent of this function numerical formatting is not supported.

Arguments

• expression: Expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function that results in a date, time, timestamp or duration.
• format: A Chrono format string to use to convert the expression.
• day: Day to use when making the date. Can be a constant, column or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.

Example

Aliases

• date_format

to_date

Converts a value to a date (YYYY-MM-DD). Supports strings, integer and double types as input. Strings are parsed as YYYY-MM-DD (e.g. '2023-07-20') if no Chrono formats are provided. Integers and doubles are interpreted as days since the unix epoch (1970-01-01T00:00:00Z). Returns the corresponding date.

Note: to_date returns Date32, which represents its values as the number of days since unix epoch(1970-01-01) stored as signed 32 bit value. The largest supported date value is 9999-12-31.

Arguments

• expression: String expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of operators.
• format_n: Optional Chrono format strings to use to parse the expression. Formats will be tried in the order they appear with the first successful one being returned. If none of the formats successfully parse the expression an error will be returned.

Example

to_local_time

Converts a timestamp with a timezone to a timestamp without a timezone (with no offset or timezone information). This function handles daylight saving time changes.

Arguments

• expression: Time expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function.

Example

to_timestamp

Converts a value to a timestamp (YYYY-MM-DDT00:00:00Z). Supports strings, integer, unsigned integer, and double types as input. Strings are parsed as RFC3339 (e.g. '2023-07-20T05:44:00') if no [Chrono formats] are provided. Integers, unsigned integers, and doubles are interpreted as seconds since the unix epoch (1970-01-01T00:00:00Z). Returns the corresponding timestamp.

Note: to_timestamp returns Timestamp(Nanosecond). The supported range for integer input is between -9223372037 and 9223372036. Supported range for string input is between 1677-09-21T00:12:44.0 and 2262-04-11T23:47:16.0. Please use to_timestamp_seconds for the input outside of supported bounds.

Arguments

• expression: Expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.
• format_n: Optional Chrono format strings to use to parse the expression. Formats will be tried in the order they appear with the first successful one being returned. If none of the formats successfully parse the expression an error will be returned.

Example

to_timestamp_micros

Converts a value to a timestamp (YYYY-MM-DDT00:00:00.000000Z). Supports strings, integer, and unsigned integer types as input. Strings are parsed as RFC3339 (e.g. '2023-07-20T05:44:00') if no Chrono formats are provided. Integers and unsigned integers are interpreted as microseconds since the unix epoch (1970-01-01T00:00:00Z) Returns the corresponding timestamp.

Arguments

• expression: Expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.
• format_n: Optional Chrono format strings to use to parse the expression. Formats will be tried in the order they appear with the first successful one being returned. If none of the formats successfully parse the expression an error will be returned.

Example

to_timestamp_millis

Converts a value to a timestamp (YYYY-MM-DDT00:00:00.000Z). Supports strings, integer, and unsigned integer types as input. Strings are parsed as RFC3339 (e.g. '2023-07-20T05:44:00') if no Chrono formats are provided. Integers and unsigned integers are interpreted as milliseconds since the unix epoch (1970-01-01T00:00:00Z). Returns the corresponding timestamp.

Arguments

• expression: Expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.
• format_n: Optional Chrono format strings to use to parse the expression. Formats will be tried in the order they appear with the first successful one being returned. If none of the formats successfully parse the expression an error will be returned.

Example

to_timestamp_nanos

Converts a value to a timestamp (YYYY-MM-DDT00:00:00.000000000Z). Supports strings, integer, and unsigned integer types as input. Strings are parsed as RFC3339 (e.g. '2023-07-20T05:44:00') if no Chrono formats are provided. Integers and unsigned integers are interpreted as nanoseconds since the unix epoch (1970-01-01T00:00:00Z). Returns the corresponding timestamp.

Arguments

• expression: Expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.
• format_n: Optional Chrono format strings to use to parse the expression. Formats will be tried in the order they appear with the first successful one being returned. If none of the formats successfully parse the expression an error will be returned.

Example

to_timestamp_seconds

Converts a value to a timestamp (YYYY-MM-DDT00:00:00.000Z). Supports strings, integer, and unsigned integer types as input. Strings are parsed as RFC3339 (e.g. '2023-07-20T05:44:00') if no Chrono formats are provided. Integers and unsigned integers are interpreted as seconds since the unix epoch (1970-01-01T00:00:00Z). Returns the corresponding timestamp.

Arguments

• expression: Expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.
• format_n: Optional Chrono format strings to use to parse the expression. Formats will be tried in the order they appear with the first successful one being returned. If none of the formats successfully parse the expression an error will be returned.

Example

to_unixtime

Converts a value to seconds since the unix epoch (1970-01-01T00:00:00Z). Supports strings, dates, timestamps and double types as input. Strings are parsed as RFC3339 (e.g. '2023-07-20T05:44:00') if no Chrono formats are provided.

Arguments

• expression: Expression to operate on. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of arithmetic operators.
• format_n: Optional Chrono format strings to use to parse the expression. Formats will be tried in the order they appear with the first successful one being returned. If none of the formats successfully parse the expression an error will be returned.

Example

today

Alias of current_date.

Array Functions

Array functions in Spice.ai SQL help construct, transform, and query array data types. These functions operate on array expressions, which can be constants, columns, or results of other functions. The implementation closely follows the PostgreSQL dialect. The following array functions are supported:

array

Constructs an array from the provided expressions using Spark-compatible semantics. Inputs are evaluated left to right, cast to a common element type, and collected into a single Arrow list value without removing duplicates or nulls.

Arguments

• expression: Value to include in the array. Expressions must be implicitly castable to a shared element type.
• expression_n: Additional expressions to append to the array.

Example

Reference: Spark SQL array.

array_any_value

Returns the first non-null element in the array. If all elements are null, returns null.

Arguments

• array: Array expression. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of array operators.

Example

Aliases

• list_any_value

array_append

Appends an element to the end of an array and returns the new array.

Arguments

• array: Array expression. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of array operators.
• element: Element to append to the array.

Example

Aliases

• list_append
• array_push_back
• list_push_back

array_cat

Alias of array_concat.

array_concat

Concatenates two or more arrays into a single array.

Arguments

• array: Array expression. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of array operators.
• array_n: Additional array expressions to concatenate.

Example

Aliases

• array_cat
• list_concat
• list_cat

array_contains

Returns true if the array contains the specified element.

Arguments

• array: Array expression. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of array operators.
• element: Element to search for in the array.

Example

Note: For array-to-array containment operations, use the @> operator.

array_dims

Returns an array of the array's dimensions. For a 2D array, returns the number of rows and columns.

Arguments

• array: Array expression. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of array operators.

Example

Aliases

• list_dims

array_distance

Returns the Euclidean distance between two input arrays of equal length.

Arguments

• array1: Array expression. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of array operators.
• array2: Array expression. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of array operators.

Example

Aliases

• list_distance

array_distinct

Returns a new array with duplicate elements removed, preserving the order of first occurrence.

Arguments

• array: Array expression. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of array operators.

Example

Aliases

• list_distinct

array_element

Extracts the element at the specified index from the array. Indexing is 1-based.

Arguments

• array: Array expression. Can be a constant, column, or function, and any combination of array operators.
• index: Index to extract the element from the array (1-based).

Example

Aliases

• array_extract
• list_element
• list_extract

---

Struct Functions

Struct functions help construct and access structured data types (Arrow structs). Functions such as struct, named_struct, and get_field are supported. These are useful for working with nested or composite data.

Map Functions

Map functions help construct and query key-value data structures. Functions include map, map_extract, map_keys, and map_values. These are useful for semi-structured or JSON-like data.

Hashing Functions

Hashing functions help compute cryptographic hashes and checksums, such as md5, sha256, and digest. These are useful for data integrity, fingerprinting, and security applications.

Union Functions

Union functions help work with union (variant) data types, such as extracting the value or tag from a union. Functions include union_extract and union_tag.

Other Functions

Additional scalar functions include type casting, type inspection, and version reporting. Functions such as arrow_cast, arrow_typeof, and version are available.

ai

Invokes large language models (LLMs) directly within SQL queries for text generation tasks. This asynchronous function processes prompts through configured model providers and returns generated text responses.

Arguments

• message: String prompt to send to the language model.
• model_name (optional): Name of the model to use as configured in your Spicepod. If omitted, the default model is used (only valid when exactly one model is configured).

Return Type

Returns a string containing the generated text response. Returns NULL if an error occurs during processing (errors are logged).

Behavior

Queries execute asynchronously, processing LLM calls in parallel across rows for improved performance. Each invocation queues an asynchronous call to the specified model provider.

The function honors DataFusion concurrency configuration for parallel requests. When multiple models with different providers are configured (e.g., OpenAI and Anthropic), each provider processes requests in parallel according to concurrency settings.

Limits: Maximum batch size of 100 rows per query; maximum input message size of 1 MB per message.

Example

Configuration

Models must be configured in spicepod.yaml under the models section. See Large Language Models for configuration details.

embed

Generates vector embeddings for text using specified embedding models. Supports both single text strings and arrays of text for batch processing.

Arguments

• text: String or array of strings to generate embeddings for.
• model_name: Name of the embedding model to use (e.g., 'potion_2m', 'xl_embed') as configured in your Spicepod.

Return Type

Returns a list of floating-point values representing the embedding vector. For array inputs, returns embeddings for each element, preserving the input array length including NULL values.

Example

bucket

Assigns a deterministic bucket identifier for a value by hashing the input and projecting it into a fixed number of buckets. Helpful for partition_by expressions and for co-locating related rows during acceleration refreshes.

Arguments

• num_buckets: Positive integer indicating how many buckets to distribute values across. Values less than 1 produce an error.
• value: Expression to hash. Accepts strings, numbers, and other scalar types supported by the query engine.

Return Type

Returns an Int64 in the range [0, num_buckets - 1]. The same input value always maps to the same bucket for a given num_buckets.

Example

In spicepod.yaml, use the function directly inside partition_by to build file-based accelerations:

truncate

Rounds numeric values down to the nearest multiple of the specified width. Useful when partitioning timestamps or numeric identifiers into wider ranges.

Arguments

• width: Positive numeric value that defines the bucket size (for example, 10, 900, or 3600).
• value: Numeric expression to truncate. Works with integers, decimals, and timestamps cast to integers (for example, epoch seconds).

Return Type

Returns a numeric value of the same type as value, rounded down so that the result is evenly divisible by width.

Example

---

Spice.ai aims for compatibility with PostgreSQL, but some functions or behaviors may differ depending on the underlying engine version.